After taking possession of Florida in 1821, the American government commissioned a census of the region. According to the results, there were over 5,000 Seminole spread throughout northern and central Florida. Living in proximity to many Seminole villages were an additional 800 individuals described as “black” Seminole. Of this number, a majority were the inhabitants of Maroon and Gullah communities--runaway slaves who had emigrated to the region in the mid-1700s and established their own free villages.
Black Seminole
The first application of the term Black Seminole came from this survey and the subsequent observations of Americans in the region. While initially applied to all free black communities in Florida, this term actually refers to children born of the union between a Seminole woman and Maroon man. As the Seminole practice matrilineal descent, the children born of such a union would be considered Seminole. In the case of the union between a Seminole man and a Maroon woman, the children would be considered black. Regardless of the distinction, however, both groups were afforded the opportunity to live free from bondage--a unique departure given their proximity to the southern United States.
Developing Communities
As more slaves escaped into Florida, they found sanctuary among both the Maroons and the Seminole. While some integrated into their host communities, others founded their own villages. The Seminole granted large tracts of land to these freedom seeking nomads and provided them with the tools necessary for survival. In return, these self-governing villages would contribute a portion of their annual crop yield to the adjoining Seminole village. It was a mutual compact that would bind both communities through years of peace and cooperation.
As American expeditions penetrated into Seminole enclaves, reports of small but well defended Maroon communities began to surface. These reports came to the attention of powerful individuals, who soon expressed their concern over the possibility of a slave insurrection instigated by these communities and their Seminole allies. This was not the first time that the relationship between the Seminole and Maroons of Florida generated concern among American leaders. During the American Revolution, southern leaders feared a massive slave insurrection. Rumors of scattered villages populated by former slaves and their descendants permeated throughout Georgia and South Carolina. In the years following the revolution, southern leaders began to urge their colleges in the new national government to take decisive action against this perceived threat.
Waves of Settlement
In 1816, the United States invaded Florida in an effort to expose pockets of fugitive slaves who had sought refuge among the Seminole. The first strike was directed against Ft. Gadsden, an abandoned British military post that had been garrisoned by over 100 former slaves. While there was never any evidence to support the claim that free black communities in Florida were trying to foment rebellion among plantation slaves in the United States, Ft Gadsden had been used to stage raids into Georgia during the War of 1812. The fort represented a threat to the power of the plantation owners and their advocates in the government. It was a natural choice for a first strike against the Seminole. In response to this attack, the Seminole Nation mobilized a counteroffensive. The result was the First Seminole War. While the United States eventually gained possession of Florida, it was through diplomacy with Spain and not military conquest.
The First Invasion of Florida
After annexing the region, the United States moved quickly to establish a presence. Almost as soon as the territorial government was empowered, federal agents descended upon Seminole enclaves with treaties in hand. Black Seminole leaders like Abraham and John Horse participated in negotiations between representatives of the United States and Seminole leaders. Cognizant of the dangers associated with an influx of white settlers, many Black Seminole communities joined Osceola’s vocal resistance to their presence. When Osceola began his armed insurgency, he had the support of many Black Seminole communities.
Sources:
Mark M. Boatner III, Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1994).
Mark C Carnes, Ed. U.S. History. (New York: MacMillan Library Reference, 1998).
Peter Matthiessen, ed. George Catlin: North American Indians. (New York: Penguin Group, 1989).
Marilyn Miller and Martin Faux, American History Desk Reference. (New York: MacMillan, 1997).
Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Carl Waldman, Encyclopedia of Native Tribes. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2006).
